あげます is the basic polite form for 'give' when the speaker (or in-group member) gives to an out-group recipient. さしあげます is the humble/honorific version for giving to a superior. やります is the downward/informal version for giving to equals or inferiors (pets, children, plants). Critical: あげます CANNOT be used when the giver is an out-group member giving to the speaker — use くれます instead. The choice among あげる/さしあげる/やる depends entirely on the social relationship between giver and recipient. For the te-form version (doing a favor for someone), see the te-form giving patterns.

Expresses that the speaker (or in-group member) receives something from someone. The giver is marked with に or から. いただきます is the humble version — use when the giver is a superior or you want to show extreme politeness. The focus is always on the receiver (speaker/in-group), not the giver. This contrasts with くれます which focuses more on the giver's action toward the speaker (see comparison).

Expresses that someone (out-group or non-speaker) gives something to the speaker or the speaker's in-group. The giver is marked with は or が, and the recipient (speaker/in-group) is marked with に. くださいます is the honorific version — use when the giver is a superior. Critical: the giver CANNOT be the speaker themselves (use あげます for that). The direction is always toward the speaker. This is the mirror image of あげます.

Expresses doing something as a favor for someone else — the speaker performs the action for the benefit of another. The benefactive direction is the same as あげます: speaker/in-group → out-group. てさしあげます is the humble version for superiors. てやります is the casual/downward version. Caution: using てあげる directly to a superior can sound presumptuous ('I'm doing you a favor') — in such situations, the humble てさしあげる or a different construction (e.g. ましょうか for offers) is preferred. The te-form あげる is fundamentally about the speaker doing a kindness outward.

Expresses that the speaker receives the benefit of someone else's action. The actor (the one doing the action) is marked with に. ていただきます is the humble version — use when the actor is a superior. This construction is inherently grateful and polite, acknowledging the other person's kindness. Contrast with てあげる: てもらう is about receiving a favor, てあげる is about doing a favor. ていただく is the standard polite way to describe receiving a service or kindness from someone of higher status.

Expresses that someone does something as a kindness toward the speaker (or speaker's in-group). The direction is always inward — the action benefits the speaker. てくださいます is the honorific version for superiors. This is the most commonly used benefactive in everyday Japanese because it acknowledges someone's kindness toward oneself without the speaker actively positioning themselves as the doer. The actor is marked with は or が. Unlike てあげる (which can sound self-congratulatory), てくれる is humble in tone because the focus is on the other person's kindness coming toward the speaker.

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The causative form expressing that the causer makes or forces the causee to do something, often against their will or at least without their active consent. The causee is marked with を for transitive verbs (indicating direct compulsion) or に for intransitive verbs. The nuance of compulsion is context-dependent — surrounding adverbs like 無理に (forcibly) or 嫌がる (reluctantly do) make it explicit. Distinguish from the permissive use (許可) where the causer allows the causee to do something they want to do. The same form V(さ)せる covers both compulsion and permission — context and particles determine the reading. を with intransitive verbs can sound unnatural in compulsion use; に is standard.

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The permissive use of the causative — the causer allows or lets the causee do something they want to do. Often carries a nuance of doing the causee a kindness by allowing them to have their way. Common with てあげる forms: 行かせてあげる (let me allow you to go = I'll let you go as a kindness). The causee is usually marked with に. Key difference from compulsion: in permission, the action is something the causee desires; in compulsion, it is something the causer imposes. Adverbs like 自由に (freely), 好きなように (as one likes) signal the permissive reading.

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The elicitation use of the causative — the causer (often an inanimate subject) triggers an involuntary emotional or physiological reaction in the causee. Common with emotion verbs: 笑わせる (make laugh), 泣かせる (make cry), 驚かせる (surprise), 怒らせる (make angry), 感動させる (move/touch). The causee is marked with を. This use is distinct from both compulsion (no force involved) and permission (no desire to be fulfilled) — it describes a stimulus that naturally provokes a response. The subject is often an event, a remark, a story, or a quality rather than a person giving an order.

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The standard passive — the subject is the recipient of an action performed by someone else. The agent (doer) is marked with に (sometimes から for receiving-type verbs). In Japanese, the passive is used more broadly than in English: it often appears when the subject is affected by an action without being the direct object (see possessor passive and adversity passive below). The basic passive simply inverts the subject-object relationship: 先生が私を褒めた → 私は先生に褒められた (I was praised by the teacher). Used frequently in news reports, formal writing, and when the agent is unknown or unimportant.

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A uniquely Japanese passive construction where the possessor (owner) of something becomes the subject of a passive clause, while the possessed item remains as the direct object. The pattern is: Possessorが + Agentに + Possessionを + V-passive. Unlike English (where you would say 'My bag was stolen'), Japanese makes the person the grammatical subject: 私は (I) + 泥棒に (by thief) + かばんを (bag) + 盗まれた (was stolen) = 'I had my bag stolen.' The person is affected through their possession. This construction is extremely common and natural in Japanese.

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Expresses that the speaker (or subject) suffered damage, inconvenience, or emotional distress because of someone's action — even when the action is intransitive and wouldn't normally take a passive. This is a distinctive feature of Japanese: intransitive verbs can be passivized to express that the speaker was negatively affected. For example, 雨が降った (it rained) → 雨に降られた (I got rained on / I suffered from the rain). The subject is harmed or inconvenienced even though they are not the direct object of the action. The agent is marked with に. Common with 泣かれる (have someone cry on you — causing you distress), 来られる (have someone come — inconveniently), 死なれる (have someone die on you — causing grief).

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The impersonal passive is used when the subject is an inanimate thing and the agent (doer) is unspecified or irrelevant. This is the most common passive in formal writing, news, academic articles, and signs. The agent is typically omitted — the focus is purely on what happened to the inanimate subject. Examples: 会議が開かれた (a meeting was held), この寺は14世紀に建てられた (this temple was built in the 14th century). Contrast with the basic passive where the agent (に-marked) may be expressed. The impersonal passive is closest to the English agentless passive ('it was done').

A double inflection combining causative (make/let) and passive (be affected). The subject is made to do something by someone else, and this is presented as affecting them — often negatively ('was forced to'), but not always. The subject is the one who ends up doing the action (unlike the simple passive where the subject receives the action). In colloquial speech, 五段 verbs often contract: 行かされる instead of 行かせられる. The causee (who does the action) is marked with は/が (as subject), and the causer (who makes them) is marked with に. This form is extremely common in complaints, narratives of misfortune, and explanations of circumstances imposed by others or society.

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A versatile N3 pattern with four core functions: (1) Causation/Reason — 'due to N': 地震によって (due to the earthquake). (2) Means/Method — 'by means of N': インターネットによって (by means of the internet). (3) Agency (passive agent) — 'by N': この作品はピカソによって描かれた (this work was painted by Picasso). (4) Correspondence — 'depending on / varying by N': 人によって考え方が違う (ways of thinking differ depending on the person). The adnominal form 〜による modifies nouns: 地震による被害 (damage due to the earthquake). In passive sentences, によって is more formal than に for marking the agent.

Expresses that something happens every time a certain event or action occurs. The pattern emphasizes repetition and the regular correspondence between the trigger event and the resulting reaction/state. に is often dropped in casual speech. Typically used for habitual or repeated situations, not one-time events. The second clause often describes a consistent outcome, reaction, or feeling. Contrast with 〜ごとに: たびに emphasizes the individual occasion (each time), while ごとに emphasizes the interval or unit (every X).

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Expresses that the outcome, result, or evaluation depends entirely on the noun attached. 次第 literally means 'order/sequence,' giving the nuance 'things will unfold according to how N is.' 〜次第で is the continuative form used mid-sentence: N次第で...変わる (it changes depending on N). 〜次第だ is the sentence-ending form declaring that everything hinges on N: 努力次第だ (it all depends on your effort). Common with 考え方 (way of thinking), 努力 (effort), 天気 (weather), 状況 (situation), 人次第 (depends on the person). Contrast with 〜に応じて (in accordance with / proportionally) which implies a proportional relationship rather than a binary hinge.

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A conditional/specifying version of によって. While によって states a general correspondence, によっては singles out specific cases within the range: 'In some cases, depending on N, it may be that...' The は adds the nuance of partiality — not all cases, but some subset. Common with adverbs like 場合 (case/situation). Different from the general によって: 人によって違う (differ by person — general statement) vs 人によってはそう思わない人もいる (there are also people, depending on the person, who don't think so — specific cases).

Marks an event or experience that served as the trigger, opportunity, or starting point for a subsequent change, action, or new phase. The event is typically personal and often positive/neutral — something that opened a door. The pattern describes how one thing led to another larger development. Common with nouns like 出会い (encounter), 留学 (studying abroad), 転職 (career change), 病気 (illness — as a catalyst for lifestyle change). にして is often included for smoother flow. Contrast with 〜を契機に which is more formal and used for official/societal turning points.

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A conditional offshoot of 次第だ. While 次第で states a general dependency ('it depends on N'), 次第では focuses on a specific possible outcome within the range: 'in some cases, depending on N, it could...' The は particle, as with によっては, adds the nuance of partiality — not always, but possibly. Common in warnings, conditional plans, and statements of contingent possibility. It signals that a particular outcome is possible if the relevant factor takes a certain turn.

Expresses that something is done or adjusted in a way that corresponds to or is proportional to N. Implies a flexible response that matches the scale, nature, or demands of the referent. に応じて is the adverbial form (used to modify predicates): 要望に応じて対応する (respond in accordance with requests). に応じた is the adnominal form (modifies nouns): 収入に応じた生活 (a lifestyle that matches one's income). Common with 能力 (ability), 収入 (income), 状況 (situation), 要望 (request/demand), 年齢 (age), レベル (level). Contrast with 次第で (which is binary — it all depends) and によって (which can be general correspondence without the proportional nuance).

Expresses that whenever a certain event occurs, a particular feeling, thought, or realization inevitably arises. The second clause is nearly always an emotional or reflective response (思い出す, 感じる, 思う, 後悔する). につけて implies a deeper, more reflective association than たびに — not just 'every time X happens I do Y' but 'every time X happens it makes me feel/think Y.' Often paired with 〜につけ (without て) for a more literary tone. The phrase 何かにつけて (at every opportunity / for any reason) is a common set expression meaning 'at every turn' or 'whatever the pretext.'

Similar to 〜をきっかけに but more formal, used for official, organizational, or societal turning points rather than personal ones. 契機 literally means 'pivotal moment' or 'turning point' with a heavier, more significant connotation. Typical in news reports, company announcements, and policy descriptions. Common nouns: 合併 (merger), 事故 (accident), 不祥事 (scandal), 制度改革 (system reform), 災害 (disaster). The event tends to be something that prompts systemic or structural change rather than personal growth. Contrast with 〜をきっかけに which is for personal, everyday triggers.

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A formal pattern (derived from classical 如何) meaning the outcome hinges entirely on the nature, quality, or result of N. いかんで is the adverbial form: Nいかんで...決まる (it will be decided depending on N). いかんだ is the sentence-ending form asserting that everything hinges on N. いかんによって is a more formal variant equivalent to いかんで. The pattern is very common in business, legal, and official contexts. いかん is typically attached directly to nouns or with の. More formal than 次第で. The phrase いかんにかかわらず (regardless of N) is a related expression.

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A conditional/specifying version of いかんで — while いかんで states a general dependency, いかんでは isolates specific possible outcomes: 'in some cases, depending on how N turns out, it could...' The は particle adds the conditional/specific nuance. Used frequently in formal warnings, legal provisions, business contingency plans, and conditional statements about official decisions. Often paired with 可能性がある (there is a possibility), 恐れがある (there is a risk), or 場合がある (there are cases where). The tone is formal and often carries an implication that the speaker wants the listener to be aware of a possible adverse outcome.