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Polite volitional form used to propose doing something together or express one's own resolve. The speaker includes themselves in the action. 〜ましょうか softens the proposal into a more consultative offer ('shall I ~?'). Distinct from 〜ませんか: ましょう assumes agreement, ませんか invites a response and leaves room for refusal.

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Polite invitation form that leaves room for refusal. Softer and more considerate than 〜ましょう because it asks for the listener's agreement rather than assuming it. Often used when extending an invitation to someone of higher status.

Expresses a strong prohibition or rule. The speaker states that something is not allowed. Commonly used when explaining rules or telling someone (especially a child or subordinate) what they must not do. In casual speech, contracted to 〜ちゃいけない / 〜じゃいけない. The plain form 〜てはいけない is used in rulebooks and signs.

Expresses strong obligation or necessity — something must be done, often by rule or social expectation. The double negative (なければ = 'if not' + なりません = 'won't become/do') literally means 'it won't do if one doesn't ~.' Shorter variants with the same meaning: なければいけません, なくてはいけません. Casual: なきゃ(いけない).

Expresses that something is not necessary or not required — there is no obligation to do it. The more formal variant is 〜なくてもかまいません. For asking permission not to do something, use 〜なくてもいいですか. Contrast with 〜てはいけません: なくてもいい means 'you are not required to do it,' while てはいけません means 'you are prohibited from doing it.'

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Polite request form. Used when asking someone to do something. ください is the imperative of くださる (humble 'give'), so the structure is literally 'give me the favor of doing ~.' More polite than the plain imperative. For very formal situations, 〜てくださいませんか or 〜ていただけませんか is preferred.

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Polite negative request — asking someone NOT to do something. The structure is 〜ないで (negative te-form) + ください. More formal than 〜ないでほしい (which expresses a personal wish). For a softer request, 〜ないでいただけませんか can be used.

A firm but not harsh command form. The standard way for parents to give instructions to children and for teachers to students. Softer than the bare imperative (〜ろ / 〜よ) but still authoritative. なさい is the imperative of なさる (honorific 'do'), which paradoxically softens the command through the respect embedded in the auxiliary.

Gives strong advice or a recommendation — the speaker believes doing (or not doing) something is the wiser course. Despite referring to the future, the verb before ほうがいい takes the past/perfective 〜た form (this is a comparative structure: 'the side that has done X is better'). The negative uses the non-past 〜ない form: 〜ないほうがいい ('had better not ~'). Difference from たらどうですか: ほうがいい is stronger and more direct; たらどう is a lighter suggestion.

A gentle, often casual way to make a suggestion. Literally 'if you do ~, how is it?' — the question form makes it less forceful than 〜たほうがいい. In casual speech, often shortened to 〜たら？ or 〜たらどう？ More formal: 〜たらいかがですか. Negative suggestions use 〜なかったらどうですか (though this is less common; people usually flip to a positive alternative instead).

Expresses permission — the speaker allows the listener to do something. The question form 〜てもいいですか is one of the most common ways to ask for permission in daily Japanese. For a more formal/polite request, use 〜てもかまいませんか or 〜てもよろしいですか. The negative 〜なくてもいい expresses that permission is not needed but is a different pattern (see 〜なくてもいい).

Expresses a conscious effort, decision, or arrangement to do (or not do) something — often as a personal resolution or ongoing habit. 〜ようにしている means 'I make a point of ~ing (and continue to do so).' Distinct from 〜ことにする which is a one-time decision ('I've decided to ~'). Also different from 〜ようになる which expresses a change of state ('came to ~' / 'reached the point where ~').

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Used for impersonal rules, regulations, and written instructions. Short, direct, and leaves no room for negotiation. Common on signs, in manuals, school rules, and formal notices. The tone is institutional rather than personal. Different from the nominalizer こと and from 〜ことだ (advisory) which gives personal recommendations. Also distinct from 〜ものだ (advisory) which describes social norms rather than institutional rules.

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More emphatic and subjective than 〜なくてもいい. Often conveys that the speaker believes the listener is overreacting or worrying unnecessarily — 'there's no reason for you to ~.' Also used to tell someone that a feared outcome isn't actually the case: 〜ことはない meaning 'it's not that ~ (so don't worry).' Not to be confused with 〜たことがない ('have never ~ed').

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Expresses that doing something is the right, proper, or morally obligated course of action based on the speaker's personal judgment. 〜べきだ is about what SHOULD be done; 〜べきではない is about what should NOT be done. Past: 〜べきだった ('should have done'). する can take すべき (more formal/literary) or するべき. Contrast with ものだ (advisory): べきだ is the speaker's personal judgment; ものだ presents the norm as a widely accepted social truth. Also contrast with はずだ: べきだ is about obligation, はずだ is about expectation. From the obligation perspective, べきだ expresses social duty and normative expectation — what one must or must not do based on role, responsibility, or common decency. For the parallel entry emphasizing judgment and reasoned conclusion, see the Judgment & Evaluation group.

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States a general moral principle or social norm as an objective, widely accepted truth. ものだ for the positive norm ('this is how things are done'), ものではない for the negative ('this is how things are NOT done'). Distinct from べきだ: ものだ frames the norm as universal truth; べきだ is the speaker's personal judgment. Also distinct from the emotional ものだ (heartfelt observation) and 〜たものだ (past habit), which belong to the Exclamation & Desire group. From the obligation perspective, ものだ presents social norms as binding duties — how one is obligated to behave because society and common sense demand it. For the parallel entry emphasizing evaluative judgment and social assessment, see the Judgment & Evaluation group.

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Expresses that only one course of action remains — the speaker sees no other viable option. Similar to 〜ほかない and 〜よりほかない. The tone is often one of resolve or resignation. Contrast with 〜ざるを得ない: しかない emphasizes that there is literally only one path available (factual limitation); ざるを得ない emphasizes the speaker's reluctant acceptance of an unavoidable action (emotional reluctance). In practice, the two overlap significantly. From the obligation perspective, しかない expresses the speaker's acceptance of necessity — the recognition that duty or circumstance leaves no alternative but to act. For the parallel entry emphasizing logical conclusion and situational assessment, see the Judgment & Evaluation group.

A double-negative structure creating an obligation that is socially or situationally compelled rather than legally required. わけ means 'reason/principle,' so literally 'there is no principled ground for not doing X.' The obligation comes from common sense, social expectation, or professional responsibility. Softer and more situation-bound than なければならない (which is a direct 'must'). Often used with どうしても. Contrast: 〜ないわけではない = 'it's not that I won't ~' (partial affirmation, leaving the door open); 〜ないわけにはいかない = 'I can't not do it' (the door is shut — obligation). The affirmative 〜わけにはいかない means 'cannot in principle' for a different reason.

Formal expression of reluctant obligation — the speaker feels they have no choice due to external circumstances. The classical negative auxiliary ざる (equivalent to modern ない) + を得ない ('cannot obtain') creates the sense 'it is impossible to not ~.' する becomes せざるを得ない (not しざるを得ない). More reluctant in tone than 〜しかない. More personal and emotion-laden than 〜を余儀なくされる.

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A formal, rhetorical invitation or call to collective action. Often used in speeches, formal proposals, or to rally a group. The speaker emphatically includes themselves in the proposed action. More elevated and emphatic than 〜ましょう. The negative form of the question (ではないか = 'is it not?') adds weight and urgency. Common in political speeches, formal ceremonies, and written appeals.

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Gives advice as a piece of general wisdom — 'the key is to ~,' 'what you should do is ~.' Often used in the structure 〜ことだ (positive advice) or 〜ないことだ (advising against something). Distinct from the exclamation 〜ことだ (which needs なんと/なんて to introduce it, e.g. なんと悲しいことだ). Also distinct from 〜こと (written rule) which is short, impersonal, and institutional. Softer and more reflective than 〜べきだ; more personal than 〜ものだ (advisory).

Expresses that something is the absolute best choice or most suitable option in the speaker's opinion. Often based on personal experience and carries a tone of confident, sometimes playful conviction. Common in casual advice and personal recommendations: 'when it comes to X, nothing beats Y.' While the structure uses 限る ('to limit'), the meaning is 'there is nothing better than / the best thing is limited to ~.'

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A formal, somewhat literary negative form with two main uses: (1) negative volition — the speaker's firm determination NOT to do something; (2) negative conjecture — 'probably not the case.' More emphatic and written than 〜ないだろう or 〜ないつもりだ. Often used in internal monologue, formal writing, and set phrases. 〜まいと決心する / 〜まいと思う are common collocations for expressing inner resolve. From the obligation/resolution perspective, まい expresses the speaker's firm negative determination — a resolute commitment NOT to act, grounded in personal principle or duty. For the parallel entry emphasizing negative judgment and conjecture, see the Judgment & Evaluation group.

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The attributive (連体形) form of べからず, used to modify nouns — 'an X that must not be done / a forbidden X.' Formal, literary, and weighty. Common in set phrases: 欠くべからざる (indispensable), 許すべからざる (unforgivable), 無視すべからざる (that cannot be ignored). The attributive form allows the prohibition to function as a modifier within a sentence, unlike sentence-final べからず. べからざる is the classical 連体形 of the negative of べし.

Expresses that a certain action or reaction is so natural and expected that its absence would be abnormal or suspicious. Literally 'it would be strange/odd without doing X.' The speaker feels strongly that X is the only natural, reasonable course of action — 'any normal person would ~.' The ずには variant is more formal/literary using the classical negative. Commonly used in argumentation, opinion writing, and when expressing moral indignation. Close in force to 当然〜するべきだが. Not interchangeable with 〜ないではいられない (which describes irresistible emotional impulse, not rational expectation).

Expresses that the situation or social/moral obligation makes the action unavoidable — the matter literally 'won't be settled' (すまない) without doing it. The speaker feels they MUST do it, often to avoid guilt, criticism, or loss of face. Stronger sense of inescapable social consequence than 〜ざるを得ない. The ず is a classical negative auxiliary (= modern ないで), and すまない means 'won't end / won't be resolved.' The modern-negative variant 〜ないではすまない has the same meaning but is slightly less formal than the ず form. Also 〜ずにはすまされない / 〜ないではすまされない (passive, even stronger — 'one will not be let off without ~ing').

Very formal expression, common in news reports and formal writing. The subject is forced into a course of action by external circumstances beyond their control. The structure is passive (される), so the subject is the recipient of the compulsion. The noun preceding is typically a Sino-Japanese compound (漢語) expressing a negative outcome: 中止, 延期, 撤退, 変更, 削減, 閉鎖, etc. Distinct from 〜ざるを得ない: を余儀なくされる focuses on the external force causing the compulsion; ざるを得ない focuses on the speaker's internal reluctant acceptance. The causative variant 〜を余儀なくさせる ('to force [someone] to ~') exists but is far less common — used when an external factor forces another party into action. Example: 不況が企業に人員削減を余儀なくさせた ('The recession forced companies to cut staff'). In practice, the passive form dominates in news and formal writing.